Chapter - 2
Parts of a SentenceA. Subject and Predicate; Operator and Predication
A sentence is primarily divided into two parts - the subject and the predicate.Subject -- The subject is the person, thing or any other entity about which something has been said in the rest of the sentence. It is the noun, pronoun, noun phrase, noun clause or any other structure having the force of a noun with which the verb must agree in number person and gender.
Predicate -- The predicate consists of the information that has been given in the sentence about the subject. It contains all the words found in the sentence except the subject. The following examples will make the two concepts clear:
. Subject Predicate
1. Jack has not done his home work.
2. My father cannot speak English fluently.
3. A very strong case can be made against the accused.
4. The dog in the manger policy is a very bad policy.
5. The boy sitting on the last bench is not listening to the teacher.
Auxiliary as operator
The auxiliary verb after which the negative element 'not' is placed to transform an affirmative sentence into a negative one or which is moved to a position before the subject to transform it into a question is called the operator. The remaining part of the predicate is known as the predication.
Sentence
↙ ↘
Subject Predicate
↓ ↙ ↘
↓ Aux. Predication
↓ as ↓
↓ operator ↓
↓ ↓ ↓
Jack has not done his home work
Range of operators
1. Of there is only one auxiliary in the verb phrase, that auxiliary is used as the operator.
He is reading a book.
He is not reading a book.
Is he reading a book?
2. If there are more auxiliaries than one, the first auxiliary is used as the operator.
The boy has been playing in the field for three hours.
The boy has not been playing in the field for three hours.
Has the boy been playing in the field for three hours?
3. If there is no auxiliary, 'do' is introduced as the operator. The s or es used as an indicator of present simple third person singular is transferred from the verb to the operator. If the sentence is in past simple tense, the past tense is transferred to the operator and the main verb is changed into the present tense form.
i. We play football in the evening.
We do not play football in the evening.
Do we play football in the evening?
ii. He always communicates in English.
He does not always communicate in English.
Does he always communicate in English?
iii. The witness told a white lie.
The witness did not tell a white lie.
Did the witness tell a white lie?
4. The verb 'be'can be used as an operator even if it is the main verb in the sentence.
He is my friend.
He is not my friend.
Is he my friend?
5. Similarly, the verb 'have' (have, has, had) can also be used as an operator even if it is the main verb in the sentence.
He has enough money to buy a car.
5. Similarly, the verb 'have' (have, has, had) can also be used as an operator even if it is the main verb in the sentence.
He has enough money to buy a car.
He has not enough money to buy a car.
Has he enough money to buy a car?
But in this case, we can also make use of 'do' as an operator.
He does not have enough money to buy a car.
Does he have enough money to buy a car?
An alternative method of analysing a sentence ( or clause) is to divide it into sentence elements.
A sentence element is a unit comprising one or more words that performs on e of the following functions in a sentence
1. Subject (S),: 2.Verb (V) 3. Object (O) 4.. Complement (C) 5. Adverbial (A)
i. Man (S) is (V) mortal (C)
ii. We (S)are making (V) a film (O).
iii. People all over the world (S)respect (V) a man with a heavy purse (O).
iv. The book (S) is lying (V) on the table (A)
v. He (S) is (V) in the hospital (A).
vi. The man (S) drove (V) the car (O) too fast (A).
As you must have observed, subject and object are mandatory elements in any sentence. Even in imperative sentences, the subject is present although it is not made explicit. The implied subject of an imperative sentence is 'you'. But if the subject is other than 'you', it has to be stated explicitly.
(You) Read the sentence again.
Someone open the door.
Sentence elements are sometimes to be found within elements such as a subject, an object, an adverbial and even a complement when it happens to be a clause.
i. {What (O) he (S) told (V) you (O)} (S) is not (V) true (C)
ii. He (S) told (V) me (O) that {he (S) had won (V) a lottery (O)} (O).
iii. We (S) are (V) {what (C) God (S) has made (V) us (O)} (C).
iv. I (S) found (V) the book (O) {where (A) I (S) had left (V) it (O)} (A).
The conjunction in these cases is a part of the clausal element which it begins. But when it is a wh- word, it is an element within the clausal element. As you can see, the word what in i is an object within the clausal element which is a subject. But the word what in iii. is a complement within the clausal element which itself is a complement. Similarly, the word where in iv. is an adverbial within the clausal element which itself is an adverbial.
The subject may be a just a noun not preceded or succeeded by any other word.
Gold is a noble metal.
Boys will be boys.
When it is an unidentified singular countable noun, it has to be preceded by the indefinite article a or an. But when it is identified, it is always preceded by the definite article the.
The noun may also be precede by a determiner other than an article such a numeral, some, many, few, a few, several, little, a little, every, each, a lot of etc..
Many students are absent from the class today.
Only a few students have given the correct answer.
However, if it is a proper noun, no article is required to precede it.
John has written five novels so far.
The subject may be a noun phrase in which the noun is pre-modified by an adjective or a noun.
Great men are not born great. (Pre-modification by an adjective)
Factory workers have to work very hard. (Pre-modification by a noun)
The adjective pre-modifying the noun itself may be modified by an adverb.
An extremely big stone fell on his car and damaged it.
It may also be a noun phrase in which the noun is pre-modified by the present participle or the past participle form of a verb.
Fluctuating current can harm an electric appliance. (Pre-modification by a present participle)
Frustrated people sometimes commit suicide. (Pre-modification by a past participle)
Note -
Even a prepositional phrase may be used to pre-modify the noun in a noun phrase functioning as the subject of a sentence.
An on the spot inquiry was ordered to ascertain the truth of the matter. (Pre-modification by a prepositional phrase)
The noun can also be post-modified by a prepositional phrase, a present participle phrase, a past participle phrase or an adjective clause.
The boy with a red turban is my cousin. (Post-modification by a prepositional phrase)
The boy wearing a red turban is my cousin. (Post-modification by a present participle phrase)
But in this case, we can also make use of 'do' as an operator.
He does not have enough money to buy a car.
Does he have enough money to buy a car?
B. Sentence Elements
Subject, Verb, Complement, Object, and Adverbial
An alternative method of analysing a sentence ( or clause) is to divide it into sentence elements.
A sentence element is a unit comprising one or more words that performs on e of the following functions in a sentence
1. Subject (S),: 2.Verb (V) 3. Object (O) 4.. Complement (C) 5. Adverbial (A)
i. Man (S) is (V) mortal (C)
ii. We (S)are making (V) a film (O).
iii. People all over the world (S)respect (V) a man with a heavy purse (O).
iv. The book (S) is lying (V) on the table (A)
v. He (S) is (V) in the hospital (A).
vi. The man (S) drove (V) the car (O) too fast (A).
As you must have observed, subject and object are mandatory elements in any sentence. Even in imperative sentences, the subject is present although it is not made explicit. The implied subject of an imperative sentence is 'you'. But if the subject is other than 'you', it has to be stated explicitly.
(You) Read the sentence again.
Someone open the door.
Sentence elements are sometimes to be found within elements such as a subject, an object, an adverbial and even a complement when it happens to be a clause.
i. {What (O) he (S) told (V) you (O)} (S) is not (V) true (C)
ii. He (S) told (V) me (O) that {he (S) had won (V) a lottery (O)} (O).
iii. We (S) are (V) {what (C) God (S) has made (V) us (O)} (C).
iv. I (S) found (V) the book (O) {where (A) I (S) had left (V) it (O)} (A).
The conjunction in these cases is a part of the clausal element which it begins. But when it is a wh- word, it is an element within the clausal element. As you can see, the word what in i is an object within the clausal element which is a subject. But the word what in iii. is a complement within the clausal element which itself is a complement. Similarly, the word where in iv. is an adverbial within the clausal element which itself is an adverbial.
1. Subject and its Realization
The subject, as stated earlier is the noun, the pronoun, the noun phrase or the noun clause or any other structure having the force of a noun with which the verb has to agree in number, person and gender. It is the person, thing, concept or any other entity about which some information is given in the words tat follow it. In an affirmative sentence, it is normally the first element in the sentence.The subject may be a just a noun not preceded or succeeded by any other word.
Gold is a noble metal.
Boys will be boys.
When it is an unidentified singular countable noun, it has to be preceded by the indefinite article a or an. But when it is identified, it is always preceded by the definite article the.
The noun may also be precede by a determiner other than an article such a numeral, some, many, few, a few, several, little, a little, every, each, a lot of etc..
Many students are absent from the class today.
Only a few students have given the correct answer.
However, if it is a proper noun, no article is required to precede it.
John has written five novels so far.
The subject may be a noun phrase in which the noun is pre-modified by an adjective or a noun.
Great men are not born great. (Pre-modification by an adjective)
Factory workers have to work very hard. (Pre-modification by a noun)
The adjective pre-modifying the noun itself may be modified by an adverb.
An extremely big stone fell on his car and damaged it.
It may also be a noun phrase in which the noun is pre-modified by the present participle or the past participle form of a verb.
Fluctuating current can harm an electric appliance. (Pre-modification by a present participle)
Frustrated people sometimes commit suicide. (Pre-modification by a past participle)
Note -
Even a prepositional phrase may be used to pre-modify the noun in a noun phrase functioning as the subject of a sentence.
An on the spot inquiry was ordered to ascertain the truth of the matter. (Pre-modification by a prepositional phrase)
The noun can also be post-modified by a prepositional phrase, a present participle phrase, a past participle phrase or an adjective clause.
The boy with a red turban is my cousin. (Post-modification by a prepositional phrase)
The boy wearing a red turban is my cousin. (Post-modification by a present participle phrase)
The dressed in white is my cousin. (Post-modification by a past participle phrase)
The boy who is wearing a red turban is my cousin. (Post-modification by an adjective clause)
The boy who is wearing a red turban is my cousin. (Post-modification by an adjective clause)
A noun clause can also be used to realize a subject.
What you think of me is not correct.
Even a non-finite clause (Infinitive or present participle) can be used as a subject.
To call a fool a fool is not a crime.
Harvesting wheat has become easy with the coming of combine harvesters.
Harvesting in the second of these sentences may also be called a gerund.
2. Complement - Types and Realization
The complement is the element that gives additional information about the subject or the object. Depending on which of the two it tells us about, we have two types of complements: the subject complement (CS) and the object complement (CO).
i. The subject complement gives some additional information about the subject of the sentence. It generally tells us what or who the subject is or has become or proved to be or what quality it has acquired.
My father (S) is a teacher in a school (CS).
An object complement gives us additional information about the object in the sentence. It tells us what the object has become or what property it has acquired as a result of the activity denoted by the verb and performed by the subject.
Success has made him (O) proud (CO).
Realization of Complements
Realization of Complements
The complement, whether a subject complement or an object complement, is realized by a noun, a noun phrase or a noun clause or by an adjective or adjective phrase. But a noun clause beginning with the conjunction THAT cannot be used to realize a complement of either type.
Subject Complements
I am the tallest boy in the class. ( Noun phrase)
His father is a very noble man. (Noun phrase)
This man is a patriot to the core. (Noun phrase)
We become what we are destined to become. (Noun clause)
The man proved to be a traitor. (Noun)
The man turned out to be a detective. (Noun)
The towel is wet. (Adjective)
This boy is very intelligent. (Adjective phrase)
He has become a wiser man than he used to be. (Noun phrase)
Object Complements
His achievements have made him (O) famous. (Adjective as CO)
A lucky chance has made him (O) a millionaire. (Noun as CO)
His philanthropic work has made him (O) a much loved man. (Noun phrase as CO)
Hard work has made him (O) what he is. (Noun clause as CO)
His achievements have made him (O) famous. (Adjective as CO)
A lucky chance has made him (O) a millionaire. (Noun as CO)
His philanthropic work has made him (O) a much loved man. (Noun phrase as CO)
Hard work has made him (O) what he is. (Noun clause as CO)
Insulting words make us (O) angry. (Adjective as CO)
We can say in short that all the structures used to realize a subject can be used to realize a complements whether subject complements or object complements. In addition to these structures, we can also use an adjective or adjective phrase to realize complements of both types.
We can say in short that all the structures used to realize a subject can be used to realize a complements whether subject complements or object complements. In addition to these structures, we can also use an adjective or adjective phrase to realize complements of both types.
3. Verb and Its Realization
A verb is a word or group of words that denotes the action performed by the agent or links the Subject with the subject complement. In the latter case, it is known as a linking verb or copula.
The verb element is always realized by a verb or a phrase. If it consists of one word only, that word is the present or past tense form of a verb. If it consists of more words than one, the last one is the head verb and the ones that precede it are auxiliary verbs. The head verb may be preceded by up to three auxiliaries.
I go for a walk daily.
Harry is building a new house.
She does not know French.
We have been trying to fix the problem for three hours.
I would have been ruined if he had not helped me.
The verb element may be finite or non-finite. If it is non-finite, it may be an infinitive, a present participle or a past participle.
The excavators found a treasure buried deep under the ground.
We saw an aeroplane flying in the sky.
Calling a spade a spade is not always as easy as it seems.
It is not easy to live in disguise.
But a non-finite verb cannot realize the verb element in a finite clause.
Non-finite verb phrases cannot express tense and mood but they can express voice and aspect.
Being branded as a traitor is the most serious thing in the world.
Having been absolved of the charge of theft has restored his prestige.
The non-finite verb phrase in the first of these sentences is in the progressive (continuous) aspect and passive voice.
In the second sentence, the non-finite verb phrase is in the perfect progressive (continuous) aspect and in the passive voice.
However, they cannot express the full range of aspects. They can express only the simple (indefinite) and perfect aspect.
She does not know French.
We have been trying to fix the problem for three hours.
I would have been ruined if he had not helped me.
The verb element may be finite or non-finite. If it is non-finite, it may be an infinitive, a present participle or a past participle.
The excavators found a treasure buried deep under the ground.
We saw an aeroplane flying in the sky.
Calling a spade a spade is not always as easy as it seems.
It is not easy to live in disguise.
But a non-finite verb cannot realize the verb element in a finite clause.
Non-finite verb phrases cannot express tense and mood but they can express voice and aspect.
Being branded as a traitor is the most serious thing in the world.
Having been absolved of the charge of theft has restored his prestige.
The non-finite verb phrase in the first of these sentences is in the progressive (continuous) aspect and passive voice.
In the second sentence, the non-finite verb phrase is in the perfect progressive (continuous) aspect and in the passive voice.
However, they cannot express the full range of aspects. They can express only the simple (indefinite) and perfect aspect.
4. Object - Types and Realization
The object is the thing or person affected or effected (created) by the activity performed by the agent. It normally follows the subject in the active voice and becomes the subject of the sentence in the passive voice.
There are two types of objects: I, Direct Object II. Indirect Object
Norma,,y the indirect object precedes the direct object and refers to a person who is the receiver of the direct object.
The direct object can be realized by using the same structures as the subject i. e. a noun, a pronoun, a noun phrase, or a noun clause. In the noun phrase, the head noun can also be modified by the same range of structures as are used to modify it when it is the subject.
But the indirect object cannot be realised by using a noun clause beginning with that or whether or if.
But the indirect object cannot be realised by using a noun clause beginning with that or whether or if.
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